3. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: Matching Headings on The Evolution of the English Language

Tags:

August 17, 2025
IELTS

IELTS Academic Reading

Matching Headings — Interactive Module

Tutorial

Follow the step-by-step guide, then attempt the passage on The Evolution of the English Language, review model answers, and consolidate your language with focused practice.

Step 1 — Understand what “Matching Headings” really tests

▾

This task measures whether you can identify a paragraph’s central idea rather than chase attractive details. It asks you to choose a heading that summarises the whole paragraph, not a sentence you recognise. Distractors are designed to echo interesting examples, statistics, or historical names that appear in the paragraph but do not represent its main message. A correct heading usually captures a shift, contrast, or cause–effect that ties the paragraph together. Headings are intentionally concise and abstract; paragraphs are concrete and specific, so you must move from detail to concept. Think in terms of “What question does this paragraph answer?” rather than “What facts does it contain?”. Keep in mind that a heading is not a topic word; it is a claim about the topic. When two options seem similar, ask which one explains more of the paragraph or includes its turning point. If none fits perfectly, choose the one that loses the least coverage while still being accurate. Train your eye to prefer structure over anecdotes, because IELTS rewards synthesis, not memory of phrases.

Step 2 — Skim the list of headings before you read

▾

Glance through all headings first to build a mental menu of likely ideas and contrasts. While skimming, group similar headings and note extreme terms like “first,” “only,” “decline,” or “revival.” Mark pairs that look close so you can separate them later with evidence. Notice if the set includes timeline words (e.g., “origins,” “standardisation,” “global spread”), which often map to historical passages such as the evolution of English. Identify any heading about causes versus consequences because many paragraphs in history-of-language texts hinge on that logic. By previewing headings, you reduce the chance of falling in love with the first partial match you see. This habit also speeds decisions when time pressure rises. Remember that not all headings will be used and some paragraphs might share themes; only precise alignment wins. Treat this as building hypotheses you will test, not decisions you have already made.

Step 3 — Read paragraphs for structure: topic → development → clincher

▾

Most academic paragraphs begin with a topic sentence, expand with evidence or examples, and end with a clincher that reframes or emphasises the key point. In language-history passages, topic sentences may mention a period (Old, Middle, Early Modern English), a force (contact with Norse or French), or a process (standardisation via printing). The development sentences then give dates, names, or case studies. The clincher often contains the generalisation the heading needs. Read with this skeleton in mind and ask: what role does each sentence play? If examples dominate, step back and ask what they collectively prove. If the paragraph opens with contrast markers like “however,” the heading may need to capture the reversal. When paragraphs are long, the main idea sometimes appears midway; resist the habit of matching only the first lines. Always re-check the last sentence; it frequently carries the author’s judgement or implication.

Step 4 — Separate “topic words” from the true controlling idea

▾

Topic words are labels like “Norse,” “Norman French,” “printing press,” or “globalisation.” They tell you the subject but not the statement about it. A heading must capture the controlling idea, such as “Norse contact streamlined English inflections” or “Printing accelerated spelling standardisation.” When a paragraph lists examples under one unifying effect, the effect—not the examples—belongs in the heading. IELTS traps you by offering a heading that repeats a topic word but misses the claim. If a paragraph says that French vocabulary entered law and administration and changed prestige patterns, a heading that simply says “French words in English” is weaker than one that says “French influence reshaped prestige domains.” Train yourself to reformulate a clause that integrates all the details. The more abstract your summary, the better your heading match will be.

Step 5 — Watch for signposts: contrast, cause, concession, and chronology

▾

Writers help you with linking words that hint at the right heading. Contrast markers (however, yet, whereas) suggest a heading that captures a surprising reversal. Cause markers (because, therefore, led to) point to a heading about drivers and consequences. Concession markers (although, despite) often lead to nuanced headings that blend two ideas, like resilience despite change. Chronology markers (initially, subsequently, by the nineteenth century) pair well with headings about phases. When two headings are similar, choose the one whose logic matches the paragraph’s signposts. For example, if a paragraph on English dialects acknowledges variation but concludes that mass media reinforced a standard, the correct heading likely reflects convergence rather than diversity. Let grammar guide you; cohesive devices are road signs to the core claim.

Step 6 — Avoid “magnet words” that match a line but miss the whole

▾

Magnet words are shiny phrases in a paragraph that pull you toward the wrong heading. A single sentence about “printing” does not justify a heading claiming “the birth of standard spelling” unless the entire paragraph supports that transformation. Similarly, a reference to “Shakespeare” should not trigger a heading about “individual authors’ influence” if the paragraph’s real focus is “expanding audiences and shared vocabulary.” To resist magnet words, cross-check how many sentences support the idea in your chosen heading. If support seems thin, you have probably matched a detail. Ask yourself whether removing the example would change the paragraph’s message; if not, that example cannot be the basis of a heading. This discipline is the fastest way to improve accuracy.

Step 7 — Build a quick paraphrase of each candidate heading

▾

Before choosing, restate short headings in fuller language to expose their meaning. “Contact with Norse speakers” becomes “prolonged interaction with Scandinavian settlers brought structural effects.” “The printer’s problem” becomes “the practical need for consistent spelling at scale.” This small step prevents you from picking headings that sound right but mean something narrower or broader. Paraphrasing also helps you spot duplicates—two headings that differ in wording but overlap in idea. When duplicates occur, one usually emphasises cause while the other emphasises outcome; the paragraph will tell you which emphasis is correct. Keep these paraphrases in the margin of your mind as you test them against each paragraph.

Step 8 — Use elimination strategically and park “near misses”

▾

Cross out headings that clearly contradict the paragraph’s dominant claim, then mark a dot next to headings that are “close but incomplete.” Do not spend long untangling twins on the first pass. Assign your best provisional choice and move on because later paragraphs often reveal which twin belongs elsewhere. Remember that unused headings are part of the design; if all your paragraphs consume the obvious options early, the final ones may force you into errors. Keep an eye on global balance: if a heading about “global spread” remains unused and you meet a paragraph describing colonial expansion and English as a lingua franca, that is your moment to deploy it. Elimination is not guesswork; it is an organised narrowing of possibilities.

Step 9 — Distinguish examples, evidence, and author’s message

▾

Examples are named events, writers, or texts that illustrate a broader claim. Evidence includes data or cumulative cases that support that claim. The author’s message is the claim itself, usually one sentence that could replace the paragraph if space were scarce. Headings aim at the message, not the evidence. For instance, if a paragraph cites the Black Death, labour mobility, and dialect mixing, the heading should reflect “levelling of inflections” or “emergence of a standard,” not “the Black Death.” Treat each example as a servant of the sentence that makes sense of it. When in doubt, ask, “What would the author want me to remember if I forgot the details?”—that sentence is your heading.

Step 10 — Handle time pressure: a reliable 3-pass routine

▾

Pass 1: skim all paragraphs, jot a two- to five-word gist for each, and allocate obvious headings immediately. Pass 2: return to paragraphs with two competing headings and test which option explains more sentences including the clincher; choose and move on. Pass 3: review any leftovers and check global consistency: timeline headings should appear in plausible order, and no heading should contradict another. Keep a firm time ceiling for each undecided item and avoid perfectionism; IELTS rewards steady progress more than heroic rescues. Practise the routine until it becomes automatic so you free mental space for reasoning rather than logistics.

Step 11 — Mini demo with “Evolution of English” style content

▾

Paragraph (gist):

“Sustained contact with Scandinavian settlers in northern England simplified inflectional endings and introduced everyday verbs.”

Candidate headings:

H1: “A literary giant expands the lexicon.” H2: “Contact with neighbours reshapes grammar.” H3: “Printing ends orthographic chaos.”

Reasoning:

Only H2 covers the structural change described (inflectional simplification plus common-verb borrowing). H1 is about authorship, not contact; H3 is about spelling, not grammar. Therefore pick H2. This illustrates how the right heading explains cause and effect, not merely shares a keyword.

Use tiny rehearsals like this as you work: state the paragraph’s claim in one sentence, then choose the heading that says the same thing at a higher level of abstraction. If a heading fails to cover all parts of your sentence, it is probably a distractor. Keep your summary sentence nearby to prevent drift when you read attractive examples in later lines. The best matches feel inevitable after you articulate the claim clearly.

Step 12 — Final checks: coverage, tone, and scope

▾

Before locking answers, verify that your chosen heading covers the whole paragraph rather than just the first half. Ensure the tone matches: if the paragraph is cautious or balanced, avoid headings with extreme words. Confirm scope: if the paragraph treats Early Modern English, a heading claiming “modern global English” is too broad. Scan for a pivot sentence; if your heading ignores that pivot, reconsider. Finally, review unused headings to see whether any describes a paragraph better than your current choice; do not be afraid to swap when evidence is stronger. This quiet two-minute audit often upgrades one or two items and raises your band score.

Task

Read the passage and complete the Matching Headings task with standard & custom timers.

Task — Matching Headings

Read the passage The Evolution of the English Language. Match the correct heading to each paragraph A–G. There are more headings than paragraphs. Use the standard timer or set a custom one.

Custom (min):

20:00

Answered: 0/7 | Correct: 0

The Evolution of the English Language

Paragraph A

▾

English begins with migration and mixture. In the fifth century, Germanic-speaking Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settled in Britain, bringing dialects that interwove into what scholars call Old English. To modern readers, it looks almost like another language: heavy with inflections, full of case endings, and thick with compounds. Yet beneath the strangeness lie familiar roots—kinship terms, body parts, weather words—that still anchor everyday speech. Works such as Beowulf show a system capable of subtle poetry and grand narrative. Old English grammar relied more on endings than on word order; that architecture would later be reshaped by contact and internal simplification. Even at this early stage, English was not static; it absorbed new items from Latin through the church and from neighbouring tongues along trade routes. The seed of flexibility was already planted, and change would become the language’s permanent condition.

Paragraph B

▾

The Norman Conquest of 1066 altered English from above. French became the language of power—court, law, administration—and it poured thousands of loanwords into English. Terms for governance, cuisine, fashion, and art arrived with new prestige, while everyday Germanic words persisted at ground level. The result, visible in Middle English, was a striking dual register: ‘ask’ beside ‘question’, ‘begin’ beside ‘commence’, ‘freedom’ beside ‘liberty’. Pronunciation and spelling shifted as French scribal habits spread. Rather than erasing English, the conquest layered it, making it capable of polite ceremony and plain talk at once. Chaucer’s verse captures this balancing act, drawing freely from both sides of the lexicon. Contact did not simply add vocabulary; it reorganised who used which words, in which settings, to what effect.

Paragraph C

▾

Printing, introduced by William Caxton in the late fifteenth century, changed the speed and shape of linguistic drift. For the first time, identical copies could circulate widely, and readers could compare spellings and forms. London usage, tied to commerce and government, increasingly set the pattern for others to follow. Although variation persisted for centuries, print nudged writers toward consistency and curbed the dominance of purely regional habits. The press also expanded literacy, creating larger audiences who expected stable formats. In this sense, technology did not freeze English; it channelled it, making some options visible and others rare. The gradual move from Middle to Early Modern English rode on this mechanical tide, with printers acting as quiet arbiters of plausibility on the page.

Paragraph D

▾

The Renaissance turned English outward to classical models and inward to invention. Scholars mined Latin and Greek for terms in philosophy, medicine, and natural science, while writers experimented boldly with analogy and metaphor. Shakespeare stands as the emblem of this energy, coining expressions, stretching syntax, and mixing registers with theatrical ease. Yet even beyond the stage, translators and scientists used classical roots to name new ideas precisely. The result was a language that could be playful or technical, ornate or plain, within a single page. English became a laboratory in which inherited Germanic bones wore classical clothing when the occasion demanded. This blend did not dilute identity; it made English agile across subjects and audiences.

Paragraph E

▾

Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century commentators tried to fix what history kept moving. Grammarians argued for rules; spelling reformers argued for logic; lexicographers tried to describe usage in authoritative lists. Samuel Johnson’s 1755 dictionary did not cage English, but it did give readers a map: definitions, quotations, and preferences that shaped taste for generations. Prescriptivism raised questions that still echo—whose English counts, and who decides? The push to codify did stabilise spelling and slenderise some alternatives; it also promoted the idea that standards could be taught. Yet the spoken language continued to slip the leash, changing sounds and idioms despite printed guidance. The dance between rule and reality became part of English’s story.

Paragraph F

▾

The nineteenth century stretched English around the world. Empire carried it to Africa, Asia, the Pacific, and the Caribbean, where it contact-mixed with local languages and produced new varieties. Within Britain, industrial migration blurred regional boundaries and levelled some dialect features, even as local accents persisted. Globally, English served trade and administration; locally, it adapted to new ecologies of meaning. Borrowings flowed both ways, and colonial settings generated hybrid vocabularies and grammars that later gained literary prestige. The result was not a single global English but a family related by history and purpose, capable of mutual understanding yet marked by distinct rhythms.

Paragraph G

▾

In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, electricity and electrons remixed communication. Radio and television amplified certain accents as models; later, the internet multiplied voices and accelerated change. Messaging platforms rewarded brevity, play, and code-switching, while global popular culture spread slang at unusual speed. English now circulates as a lingua franca among non-native speakers as often as among natives, which feeds back into vocabulary and pragmatics. New words enter by meme as much as by manuscript. Yet alongside innovation, older standards survive in law, academia, and publishing. The language negotiates between stability and flux, demonstrating once more that evolution is its habit, not its emergency.

Questions — Match the Headings (A–G)

Choose the heading that best summarises each paragraph. There are more headings than paragraphs.

List of Headings

The influence of classical scholarship and creativity
The impact of foreign rulers on vocabulary
The language of the earliest settlers
The codification and regulation of English
The continuing transformation in the digital era
The role of technology in standardising English
The worldwide spread and diversification of English
The emergence of regional dialects in England
A single author’s lasting authority
Contact with Norse speakers and grammatical simplification
The shift from inflection to fixed word order
Debates over spelling reform movements

Remaining:

Paragraph A

—

Paragraph B

—

Paragraph C

—

Paragraph D

—

Paragraph E

—

Paragraph F

—

Paragraph G

—

Sample Answers

See correct keys and 15–30 sentence explanations for each item.

Sample Answers & Detailed Explanations

Paragraph A — Correct Heading: 3. The language of the earliest settlers

Paragraph A focuses on the origins of English, specifically the Anglo-Saxon tribes who introduced Old English in the fifth century. This stage of the language is characterised by inflections, case endings, and a grammatical system quite distinct from modern English. The reference to *Beowulf* illustrates the literary richness of this period. A crucial detail here is that the paragraph is entirely devoted to the earliest foundations of the language, which makes heading 3 the most suitable choice. Other headings, such as those related to technology or foreign rulers, do not apply because those developments occur much later. The reasoning hinges on chronology: this paragraph represents the very beginning of the language’s evolution. Learners should note that IELTS Matching Headings questions often require identifying time periods and major themes rather than isolated details. By matching the phrase “earliest settlers” with the historical account of Anglo-Saxon migration, the correct connection becomes clear. Distractor options like prescriptivism or globalisation are tempting but irrelevant here. The key is recognising that Old English formed the base upon which all later developments were built. Without this foundational stage, later changes such as Norman influence or Renaissance borrowing could not be contextualised. Therefore, the reasoning is chronological, thematic, and rooted in the concept of beginnings.

Paragraph B — Correct Heading: 2. The impact of foreign rulers on vocabulary

Paragraph B highlights the Norman Conquest of 1066, which profoundly altered English vocabulary. The ruling elite spoke French, and their influence permeated law, administration, and daily life. The result was an enormous influx of French words into English, creating Middle English as a hybrid form. The text references Chaucer’s *Canterbury Tales* as an example of this linguistic mixture. When considering the heading, the key clue is “foreign rulers” — the Normans fit perfectly into this category. The impact is specifically on vocabulary and pronunciation patterns, which aligns directly with heading 2. Other headings, such as prescriptivism or Renaissance scholarship, are anachronistic in this context. The reasoning is also strengthened by the detail that French became associated with authority and sophistication, further entrenching its influence. IELTS candidates should note that this heading is not about the mere presence of borrowing but about the political and social context that drove it. By focusing on the relationship between conquest and language change, heading 2 provides the most precise description. Alternative options fail to capture the sociopolitical dimension, which is central here. Hence, the correct match is unambiguous when analysed carefully.

Paragraph C — Correct Heading: 6. The role of technology in standardising English

Paragraph C deals with the introduction of the printing press by William Caxton in the fifteenth century. This technological innovation helped stabilise spelling and grammar. While dialectal variation had dominated previously, print culture pushed toward a more uniform form of English centred on London. Although spelling remained inconsistent, the press offered models for literacy and accelerated the shift to Early Modern English. The correct heading must therefore capture both the technological factor and its effect on standardisation. Heading 6 explicitly mentions “the role of technology” and “standardising English,” which aligns perfectly with the main idea of this paragraph. Alternatives such as prescriptivism (heading 4) might appear tempting, but prescriptivism belongs to a later historical stage when grammarians codified usage. The subtle distinction is that printing encouraged standardisation indirectly through dissemination, while prescriptivism imposed explicit rules. Candidates must grasp such differences in IELTS reading. By focusing on technology rather than ideology, heading 6 becomes the unambiguous match. This illustrates the importance of identifying not only what happened but also the mechanism driving it — here, the mechanism was printing technology.

Paragraph D — Correct Heading: 1. The influence of classical scholarship and creativity

Paragraph D describes the Renaissance and its intellectual curiosity. English borrowed heavily from Latin and Greek, particularly in science, philosophy, and the arts. The paragraph also highlights Shakespeare, whose creativity added countless new terms. The dual themes here are classical learning and imaginative innovation. Heading 1, which mentions “classical scholarship and creativity,” captures both threads in one concise statement. Other headings fail to combine both dimensions: some focus only on prescriptivism or empire, which are unrelated. The reasoning involves recognising the cultural context of the Renaissance and the linguistic flowering it produced. Shakespeare’s works epitomise how creative energy expanded English, while classical borrowings provided precision and breadth. IELTS candidates should note that headings often condense two complementary ideas — here, scholarship and creativity. Identifying both in the paragraph confirms the match. This requires careful reading beyond single keywords, as both Latin/Greek influence and Shakespearean invention appear side by side. Thus, heading 1 is uniquely correct, and the explanation demonstrates how both classical learning and artistic genius enriched English.

Paragraph E — Correct Heading: 4. The codification and regulation of English

Paragraph E focuses on the prescriptivist movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Grammarians and lexicographers, such as Samuel Johnson, sought to “fix” the language. Johnson’s dictionary of 1755 exemplifies this effort. The key ideas are codification (standardising spelling, grammar, and usage) and regulation (the attempt to impose authority). Heading 4 explicitly refers to “codification and regulation,” making it the most appropriate match. IELTS candidates must distinguish this stage from earlier technological standardisation by the printing press. Unlike printing, prescriptivism involved conscious rule-making and debates about correctness. The paragraph also highlights the tension between natural language evolution and artificial constraints, a hallmark of prescriptive grammar. Other headings, such as empire or digital transformation, are irrelevant here. The reasoning is straightforward: the prescriptive drive is unique to this period and directly captured in heading 4. Learners should be aware that headings often paraphrase the text. “Codification” here equates to “fixing,” while “regulation” refers to controlling usage. Recognising such paraphrases is essential for success in this question type. Hence, heading 4 is unequivocally correct.

Paragraph F — Correct Heading: 7. The worldwide spread and diversification of English

Paragraph F discusses the nineteenth century, when the British Empire extended English globally. English mingled with local languages in colonies, producing new varieties. At the same time, industrialisation and urbanisation caused dialect levelling within Britain. The key theme is both global spread and diversification into regional forms. Heading 7 encapsulates this duality perfectly. IELTS candidates should note the importance of the word “worldwide” in the heading, which corresponds to empire expansion. Meanwhile, “diversification” reflects the emergence of distinct forms shaped by cultural contact. Other headings do not capture both aspects simultaneously. For example, prescriptivism focuses on internal regulation, while digital transformation is too modern. The reasoning rests on recognising the twofold nature of change described: outward expansion and internal variation. By aligning these with the keywords of the heading, the correct choice becomes clear. This is a classic IELTS test of synthesis: matching a heading requires capturing more than one element of meaning. Thus, heading 7 is the accurate and complete answer for this paragraph.

Paragraph G — Correct Heading: 5. The continuing transformation in the digital era

Paragraph G brings the story to the modern age, highlighting the role of radio, the internet, and globalisation. Mass media accelerated English’s dominance, while digital communication created new registers, slang, and abbreviations. The paragraph also notes that English functions as a lingua franca yet remains influenced by countless other languages. The theme is clear: ongoing change in the digital era. Heading 5 precisely captures this continuity and technological context. Other headings, such as classical scholarship or codification, belong to earlier centuries and are not relevant here. IELTS candidates must pay attention to temporal markers: twentieth and twenty-first centuries clearly signal a contemporary heading. The explanation also stresses that evolution is ongoing, not concluded. The phrase “continuing transformation” in the heading matches this emphasis directly. Learners should also note that innovation and negotiation between tradition and change are highlighted, showing dynamism. Distractors fail because they do not mention the modern technological and global context. Therefore, heading 5 is the only heading that aligns fully with the paragraph’s message.

Vocabularies

20 crucial words with IPA (BrE/AmE), PoS, patterns, definitions, examples, synonyms, and common mistakes.

Key Vocabulary from the Passage

Inflection

IPA (BrE): /ɪnˈflekʃən/ IPA (AmE): /ɪnˈflɛkʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: inflection of + noun; heavy/light inflection; loss of inflections

Definition: A change in a word’s form (often the ending) to mark grammar such as tense, number, case, or person.

Example: “Old English relied on inflection to signal case, so word order was freer.” → Means endings, not position, showed function.

Synonym: morphological ending

Common mistakes: Confusing inflection (word form) with intonation (voice pitch); writing “~inflective” instead of “inflectional”.

Codify

IPA (BrE): /ˈkəʊdɪfʌɪ/ IPA (AmE): /ˈkoʊdɪfaɪ/

Part(s) of speech: verb (transitive)

Patterns: codify + rules/laws/usage; codify into + system/code

Definition: To organise and set down rules or principles in a systematic, authoritative form.

Example: “Eighteenth-century grammarians tried to codify ‘correct’ usage.” → They made formal rules.

Synonym: systematise; formalise

Common mistakes: Mixing up with decode; using “codify about” (use “codify something”, not “about”).

Dialect

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˈdaɪəlekt/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable)

Patterns: regional/local + dialect; dialect of + language

Definition: A regional or social variety of a language with its own vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

Example: “Printing reduced the dominance of any one dialect on the page.” → Regional forms lost power.

Synonym: variety

Common mistakes: Confusing dialect (system) with accent (pronunciation only).

Prescriptivism

IPA (BrE/AmE): /prɪˈskrɪptɪvɪzəm/

Part(s) of speech: noun (uncountable)

Patterns: prescriptivism in/over + area; advocate/resist + prescriptivism

Definition: The belief that language should follow fixed rules, often promoted by grammars and dictionaries.

Example: “Johnson’s dictionary fed debates around prescriptivism.” → It encouraged rule-based views.

Synonym: rule-based approach

Common mistakes: Using as an adjective (“a prescriptivism rule” ❌) instead of “prescriptive rule”.

Borrowing (loanword)

IPA (BrE): /ˈbɒrəʊɪŋ/ IPA (AmE): /ˈbɑːroʊɪŋ/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: borrowing from + language; a flood of borrowings

Definition: A word taken from another language and used in your own.

Example: “French borrowings reshaped legal vocabulary in English.” → New words entered law.

Synonym: loanword

Common mistakes: Writing “borrowing word” (use “borrowed word/loanword”); confusing with “lending”.

Standardisation (standardization)

IPA (BrE): /ˌstændədaɪˈzeɪʃən/ IPA (AmE): /ˌstændərdɪˌzeɪʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (uncountable)

Patterns: standardisation of + spelling/grammar; move toward + standardisation

Definition: The process of making forms consistent across users and contexts.

Example: “Printing encouraged the standardisation of spelling.” → People copied common forms.

Synonym: harmonisation; regularisation

Common mistakes: Spelling confusion (BrE -sation vs AmE -zation); using with a plural (“standardisations” rarely needed).

Lingua franca

IPA: /ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable, often singular)

Patterns: serve as a lingua franca; global lingua franca

Definition: A language used for communication between speakers of different first languages.

Example: “English functions as a lingua franca in science.” → Shared medium for international users.

Synonym: bridge language

Common mistakes: Pluralising as “linguas francas” is acceptable; avoid “linguae francae” unless in Latin contexts.

Diversification

IPA (BrE/AmE): /dɪˌvɜːsɪfɪˈkeɪʃn̩/ (AmE /dɪˌvɝː-/)

Part(s) of speech: noun (uncountable)

Patterns: diversification of + varieties/markets; lead to diversification

Definition: The process by which something becomes more varied or develops new forms.

Example: “Empire prompted the diversification of Englishes worldwide.” → Many new forms arose.

Synonym: variety expansion

Common mistakes: Using “diverse” (adj.) when a noun is required; overusing hyphens (“diversifi-cation”).

Abbreviation

IPA (BrE/AmE): /əˌbriːviˈeɪʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: abbreviation of + word; X stands for Y

Definition: A shortened form of a word or phrase.

Example: “Digital messaging popularised abbreviations like ‘info’ and ‘app’.” → Short forms spread online.

Synonym: shortening

Common mistakes: Confusing with acronym (pronounced as a word, e.g., NASA).

Migration

IPA (BrE/AmE): /maɪˈɡreɪʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: migration of + people; waves of migration

Definition: Movement of people from one region to another, often shaping language contact.

Example: “Germanic migration laid the groundwork for Old English.” → Movement created the base dialects.

Synonym: relocation; movement

Common mistakes: Using “immigration” and “emigration” interchangeably; they differ by direction.

Conquest

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˈkɒŋkwest/ (AmE /ˈkɑːŋ-/)

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: conquest by + group; conquest of + place

Definition: Taking control of a country/region by force, often changing language status.

Example: “The Norman conquest introduced vast French vocabulary.” → Political change drove borrowing.

Synonym: subjugation

Common mistakes: Writing “conquering” as a noun in formal writing; use “conquest”.

Lexicographer

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˌleksɪˈkɒɡrəfə/ (AmE /-ˈkɑːɡrəfər/)

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable)

Patterns: lexicographer of + dictionary; prominent lexicographer

Definition: A person who compiles or writes dictionaries.

Example: “Johnson was a pioneering lexicographer of English.” → He authored a major dictionary.

Synonym: dictionary-maker

Common mistakes: Spelling (“lexico-grapher” ❌); stress on “-kog-” not “-co-”.

Hybrid

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˈhaɪbrɪd/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable), adjective

Patterns: hybrid + noun; a hybrid of A and B

Definition: Something formed by combining different elements; linguistically, mixed forms.

Example: “Colonial contact produced hybrid vocabularies.” → Mixed local and English items.

Synonym: blend; composite

Common mistakes: Treating “hybrid” as a verb; it is a noun/adjective (“to hybridise” is the verb).

Pronunciation

IPA (BrE): /prəˌnʌnsɪˈeɪʃən/ IPA (AmE): /prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: pronunciation of + word; standard/prized pronunciation

Definition: The way a word is spoken.

Example: “French scribal habits influenced English pronunciation and spelling.” → Sound–spelling patterns shifted.

Synonym: articulation

Common mistakes: Spelling it as “pronounciation” ❌; stress on “-ei-”.

Invention

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ɪnˈvɛnʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: invention of + device/term; literary invention

Definition: The creation of something new; in language, novel words/expressions.

Example: “Renaissance writers were celebrated for lexical invention.” → They coined expressions.

Synonym: coinage; creativity

Common mistakes: Using “invent” for discovery (“invented America” ❌); use “discovered”.

Regulation

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˌrɛɡjʊˈleɪʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: language regulation; regulation of + usage

Definition: The act of controlling or setting rules for behaviour — here, for language use.

Example: “Prescriptive grammars aimed at the regulation of syntax and style.” → Controlling usage.

Synonym: control; governance

Common mistakes: Overusing the plural; in academic prose the uncountable is frequent.

Globalisation (globalization)

IPA (BrE): /ˌɡləʊbəlʌɪˈzeɪʃən/ IPA (AmE): /ˌɡloʊbəlɪˈzeɪʃən/

Part(s) of speech: noun (uncountable)

Patterns: globalisation of + culture/markets/language

Definition: Growing worldwide interconnection that spreads languages and practices.

Example: “The internet intensified the globalisation of English slang.” → Global sharing sped up.

Synonym: worldwide integration

Common mistakes: Treating as countable (“globalisations”) in general discussion; avoid unnecessary capitals.

Register (linguistic)

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˈrɛdʒɪstə(r)/

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: formal/informal/scientific + register; switch registers

Definition: A style of language used in a particular situation, defined by formality, purpose, and audience.

Example: “English developed a dual register after the Conquest—plain and prestigious.”

Synonym: style; level of formality

Common mistakes: Confusing with the verb “to register”; using “tone” as a strict synonym (not always equivalent).

Negotiation

IPA (BrE/AmE): /nɪˌɡəʊʃiˈeɪʃən/ (AmE /-ˌgoʊʃi-/)

Part(s) of speech: noun (countable/uncountable)

Patterns: negotiation between A and B; ongoing negotiation

Definition: The process of balancing or reconciling competing demands — here, stability vs change in language.

Example: “Modern English is a negotiation between standard norms and online creativity.”

Synonym: balancing; mediation

Common mistakes: Overusing as a verb in academic style (“to negotiation” ❌); use “negotiate”.

Literacy

IPA (BrE/AmE): /ˈlɪtərəsi/

Part(s) of speech: noun (uncountable)

Patterns: expand/raise literacy; literacy in + area

Definition: The ability to read and write; also, competence in a specialised area (e.g., digital literacy).

Example: “Printing widened access and boosted literacy.” → More people could read standard forms.

Synonym: reading/writing competence

Common mistakes: Confusing with “literature”; using as countable in general sense.

Phrases & Expressions

20 crucial phrases & expressions with the same detailed breakdown.

Key Phrases & Expressions from the Passage

Lay the foundations of

IPA: /leɪ ðə faʊnˈdeɪʃənz ɒv/ (AmE /-ʌv/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: lay the foundations of/for + noun

Definition: To create the essential base on which something later develops.

Example: “Old English laid the foundations of modern grammar.” → It provided the base system.

Synonym: establish the basis for

Common mistakes: Omitting the article (“lay foundations of” sounds informal); mixing “for/of”.

Alter (something) from above

IPA: /ˈɔːltə(r) frɒm əˈbʌv/ (AmE /ˈɔːltər frʌm əˈbʌv/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase (metaphor: top-down change)

Patterns: alter/shape/drive + system + from above

Definition: To change a system through elite or official pressure, not grassroots usage.

Example: “The Norman court altered English from above via prestige vocabulary.”

Synonym: impose top-down change

Common mistakes: Using “from the above” ❌; the idiomatic form is “from above”.

Dual register

IPA: /ˈdjuːəl ˈrɛdʒɪstə/ (AmE /ˈduːəl ˈrɛdʒɪstər/)

Part(s) of speech: noun phrase

Patterns: develop/maintain a dual register; a dual register of X and Y

Definition: The coexistence of two styles or levels of formality within a language/community.

Example: “English evolved a dual register—plain Germanic and formal French.”

Synonym: two-level style

Common mistakes: Treating “register” as singular countable without an article (“has dual register” → better “a dual register”).

Set the pattern (for others to follow)

IPA: /set ðə ˈpætən/ (AmE /ˈpætərn/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: set the pattern for + noun/ing

Definition: To become the model that others copy.

Example: “London usage set the pattern for printed English.”

Synonym: establish the model

Common mistakes: “Set up the pattern” is less idiomatic in this sense.

Nudge (someone/something) toward consistency

IPA: /nʌdʒ təˈwɔːdz/ (AmE /tɔːrdz/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: nudge + system/users + toward(s) + goal

Definition: To push gently in a desired direction.

Example: “Printing nudged writers toward consistency.”

Synonym: steer; coax

Common mistakes: Using “push to consistency” (sounds forceful); prefer “toward consistency”.

Act as an arbiter (of)

IPA: /ˈɑːbɪtə/ (AmE /ˈɑːrbɪtər/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: act as an arbiter of + domain

Definition: To serve as a judge or authority that decides what is acceptable.

Example: “Printers quietly acted as arbiters of plausible spellings.”

Synonym: serve as an authority

Common mistakes: “Act an arbiter” ❌ → “act as an arbiter”.

Mine (sources) for terms

IPA: /maɪn/

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: mine + corpus/sources + for + items

Definition: To search intensively to extract useful items (here, vocabulary).

Example: “Renaissance scholars mined Latin and Greek for terms.”

Synonym: extract; trawl

Common mistakes: Using “mine for to” ❌; correct is “mine X for Y”.

Stretch syntax

IPA: /strɛtʃ ˈsɪntaks/

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: stretch + syntax/grammar

Definition: To experiment with or extend grammatical structures creatively.

Example: “Shakespeare stretched syntax to dramatic effect.”

Synonym: push the limits of grammar

Common mistakes: “Stretch on syntax” ❌; no preposition after “stretch”.

Mix registers

IPA: /mɪks ˈrɛdʒɪstəz/ (AmE /-stərz/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: mix + formal/informal + registers

Definition: To blend styles of language (formal with informal) in one text.

Example: “The playwright mixed registers within a single speech.”

Synonym: blend styles

Common mistakes: “Mix of registers” (noun) is fine; as a verb, use direct object “mix registers”.

Fix the language

IPA: /fɪks ðə ˈlæŋɡwɪdʒ/

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase (prescriptivist aim)

Patterns: attempt/seek to + fix the language

Definition: To try to stop change by imposing stable rules.

Example: “Eighteenth-century grammarians tried to fix the language.”

Synonym: stabilise; regulate

Common mistakes: Using literal sense (repairing broken language) in academic contexts.

Give rise to (debates)

IPA: /ɡɪv ˈraɪz tuː/

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: give rise to + noun

Definition: To cause something to start or develop.

Example: “Johnson’s work gave rise to debates on correctness.”

Synonym: trigger; generate

Common mistakes: “Give raise to” ❌; “raise” ≠ “rise”.

Dialect levelling

IPA: /ˈdaɪəlekt ˈlɛvəlɪŋ/

Part(s) of speech: noun phrase

Patterns: dialect levelling of + features; lead to levelling

Definition: Reduction of differences between dialects due to contact and mobility.

Example: “Industrial migration caused dialect levelling in cities.”

Synonym: convergence

Common mistakes: Spelling “leveling” (AmE) vs “levelling” (BrE) — be consistent with variety.

Carry a language (to places)

IPA: /ˈkæri ə ˈlæŋɡwɪdʒ/

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase (metaphor)

Patterns: carry + language + to/into + region

Definition: To spread a language geographically via power, trade or settlement.

Example: “Empire carried English to distant colonies.”

Synonym: spread; disseminate

Common mistakes: Using “bring” when the subject is impersonal (empire/policy → better “carry/spread”).

Serve as a lingua franca

IPA: /sɜːv æz ə ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/ (AmE /sɝːv/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: serve as + a lingua franca in + field

Definition: To function as the common language for communication among different groups.

Example: “English serves as a lingua franca in aviation.”

Synonym: act as a bridge language

Common mistakes: Omitting the article (“serve as lingua franca” sounds incomplete in most contexts).

Adapt to new ecologies (of meaning)

IPA: /əˈdæpt tə nuː ɪˈkɒlədʒiːz/ (AmE /ɪˈkɑː-/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: adapt to + new/local + ecologies/contexts

Definition: To adjust language choices to new cultural and communicative environments.

Example: “Colonial English adapted to new ecologies of meaning.”

Synonym: adjust; accommodate

Common mistakes: Using “adopt” when “adapt” is intended.

A family of related forms

IPA: /ə ˈfæməli əv rɪˈleɪtɪd fɔːmz/

Part(s) of speech: noun phrase (metaphor)

Patterns: a family of + related forms/varieties

Definition: A set of varieties connected by common origin and mutual intelligibility.

Example: “World Englishes are a family of related forms.”

Synonym: network of varieties

Common mistakes: Treating each variety as mutually unintelligible — the phrase implies partial shared core.

Amplify accents as models

IPA: /ˈæmplɪfaɪ ˈæksents æz ˈmɒdəlz/ (AmE /ˈmɑːdəlz/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: media/TV/radio + amplify + accents + as models

Definition: To broadcast and raise certain pronunciations to prestige status.

Example: “Early radio amplified accents as models for listeners.”

Synonym: popularise as standards

Common mistakes: Using “exemplify” (means illustrate) instead of “amplify” (means increase reach/volume).

Code-switching

IPA: /ˈkəʊd ˌswɪtʃɪŋ/ (AmE /ˈkoʊd-/)

Part(s) of speech: noun (uncountable)

Patterns: engage in/code-switching between + varieties/languages

Definition: Rapid shifting between language varieties within one conversation or text.

Example: “Online chat encourages code-switching between formal and slang.”

Synonym: style-shifting (near)

Common mistakes: Hyphen omission is acceptable (“codeswitching”), but keep it consistent.

Negotiate between stability and change

IPA: /nɪˈɡəʊʃieɪt bɪˈtwiːn/ (AmE /-ˈgoʊʃi-/)

Part(s) of speech: verb phrase

Patterns: negotiate between A and B; continual negotiation between …

Definition: To balance conservative norms and innovative tendencies.

Example: “Modern English negotiates between stability and change.”

Synonym: strike a balance

Common mistakes: Using “negotiate with” for internal balances; “between” is clearer.

Ongoing evolution

IPA: /ˈɒnɡəʊɪŋ ˌiːvəˈluːʃn̩/ (AmE /ˌɛvəˈluːʃən/ also /ˌiv- /)

Part(s) of speech: noun phrase

Patterns: ongoing evolution of + system

Definition: Continuous development rather than a finished state.

Example: “Digital platforms highlight the ongoing evolution of English.”

Synonym: continual development

Common mistakes: Writing “on going” as two words; using “revolution” when gradual change is meant.

PrevPrevious4. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: TRUE/FALSE/NOT GIVEN with “The Art of Origami” (Full Interactive Tutorial)

Next2. IELTS Academic Speaking Part 2 Practice: Cue Card, Model Answer, Vocabulary, Phrases & Interactive QuizNext

Shopping cart

3. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: Matching Headings on The Evolution of the English Language

Tutorial

Paragraph (gist):

Candidate headings:

Reasoning:

Task

Task — Matching Headings

The Evolution of the English Language

Sample Answers

Sample Answers & Detailed Explanations

Vocabularies

Key Vocabulary from the Passage

Phrases & Expressions

Key Phrases & Expressions from the Passage

Vocabulary & Expressions Review Quiz

Vocabulary & Expressions Review Quiz

Leave A Reply Cancel reply

You May Also Like

10. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: Matching Headings on The Evolution of the English Language

9. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: Matching Headings on The Evolution of the English Language

8. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: Matching Headings on The Evolution of the English Language

7. IELTS Academic Reading Practice: Matching Headings on The Evolution of the English Language

Sign up to receive our latest updates

Get in touch

Need some help?

My Notes

Book Your Free Consultation

Welcome to Your English Journey!

Thank You for Your Application!

Popular subjects

Need some help?

Login with your site account

Register a new account